2024年4月26日发(作者：数据恢复精灵破解版)

.(2019)30(6):1981–1996

/10.1007/s11676-019-00916-x

REVIEWARTICLE

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmental

ecosystemservicesprovidedbyurbanforest

SamsonRoeland

1

•

MarcoMoretti

2

•

JorgeHumbertoAmorim

3

•

CristinaBranquinho

4

•

¨

loNiinemets

7

•

ElenaPaoletti

8

•

SilvanoFares

5

•

FedericoMorelli

6

•

U

PedroPinho

4,9

•

GregorioSgrigna

10

•

VladimirStojanovski

11

•

AbhishekTiwary

12

•

PierreSicard

13

•

CarloCalfapietra

10,14

Received:3November2018/Accepted:15January2019/Publishedonline:22March2019

ÓTheAuthor(s)2019

AbstractAsaNature-BasedSolution,urbanforestsdeli-

veranumberofenvironmentalecosystemservices(EESs).

ToquantifytheseEESs,well-defined,reliable,quantifiable

teratureanalysis

andexpertknowledgegatheredwithinCOSTAction

FP1204GreenInUrbs,weproposedaclassificationofurban

forestEESsintothreecategories:(A)regulationofair,

water,soilandclimate;(B)provisioningofhabitatquality;

and(C)

categoryisdividedintoEEStypes:(a)ameliorationofair

quality;restorationofsoilandwater;ameliorationofthe

microclimate;removalofCO

2

fromtheair;(b)provision

ofhabitatforbiodiversity;supportforresilienturban

ecosystems;provisionofgeneticdiversity;and(c)provi-

sionofenergyandnutrients;provisionofgreyinfrastruc-

Stypeprovidesoneormore

benefihofthese12benefits,weproposeasetof

indicatorstobeusedwhenanalyzingtheimpactsonthe

identifihalfofthe36indicatorsarerel-

evanttomorethanonesinglebenefit,whichhighlights

icatorsofwiderappli-

cabilityaretreeandstandcharacteristics,followedbyleaf

owl-

edgeisneededfortheoptimizationoftheEESsdelivered

byurbanforests,nowandinthefuture.

KeywordsUrbanforestsÁEnvironmentalecosystem

servicesÁIndicators

Projectfunding:TheworkwasfinanciallysupportedbyCOSTAction

FP1204GreenInUrbs,PRINprojectEUFORICC,andMinistryof

EducationandScienceoftheRussianFederation(theAgreementNo.

02.A03.21.0008).

Theonlineversionisavailableat

Correspondingeditor:YuLei.

&ElenaPaoletti

ti@

1

5

CouncilforAgriculturalResearchandEconomics(CREA),

ResearchCenterforForestryandWood,Arezzo,Italy

DepartmentofAppliedGeoinformaticsandSpatialPlanning,

FacultyofEnvironmentalSciences,CzechUniversityofLife

´

129,16500Prague6,Czech

´

ckaSciencesPrague,Kamy

Republic

InstituteofAgriculturalandEnvironmentalSciences,

EstonianUniversityofLifeSciences,Kreutzwaldi1,

Tartu51014,Estonia

InstituteofResearchonTerrestrialEcosystems(IRET),

CNR,SectionofFlorence,ViaMadonnadelPiano10,

SestoFiorentino,Italy

CentreforNaturalResourcesandtheEnvironment,Instituto

´

cnico,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon1749-016,SuperiorTe

Portugal

6

DepartmentofBioscienceEngineering,ResearchGroup

EnvironmentalEcologyandAppliedMicrobiology,

LaboratoryofEnvironmentalandUrbanEcology,University

ofAntwerp,Antwerp,Belgium

SwissFederalResearchInstituteWSL,Biodiversityand

¨

rcherstrasse111,ConservationBiology,Zu

8903Birmensdorf,Switzerland

SwedishMeteorologicalandHydrologicalInstitute(SMHI),

¨

ping,SwedenSE-60176Norrko

ˆ

ncias,cE3c-CentreforEcology,EvolutionFaculdadedeCie

andEnvironmentalChanges,UniversidadedeLisboa,Campo

Grande,Lisbon1749-016,Portugal

7

2

8

3

4

9

123

1982

Introduction

Urbanareasareprojectedtoaccommodate68%ofthe

world’spopulationby2050(UnitedNations2018).Urban

forests(includingindividualtreesandshrubs,parksand

forests)playacrucialroleinimprovingtheenvironmental

qualityofcitiesandurbandwellers(Royetal.2012;

Shwartzetal.2014).Conventionalurbangreeningman-

agementprimarilyaimsatenhancingamenityvalues

(Panditetal.2013)andmaintainingbiodiversity(Llausa

`

s

andRoe2012),butgrowinginteresthasbeenfocusingon

carbon(C)managementperspectives(Grimmetal.2008)

andotherenvironmentalecosystemservices(EESs).

Ecosystemservices(ES)aredefinedasbenefitsthat

humansobtainfromecosystemfunctions(DeGrootetal.

2002),orasdirectandindirectcontributionsfrom

ecosystemstohumanwell-being(TEEB2010).ManyES

typeshavebeenidentifiedandgroupedintothree(provi-

sioning,regulating,andculturalservices,Maesetal.2016)

orfourcategories(theformerthree,plussupportingser-

vices;TEEB2010).Ameta-analysisonurbanESscon-

cludedthatmoststudieswereundertakeninEurope,North

AmericaandChina,andthatalmost50,20,11and15%of

thestudieswereaboutregulating,supporting,provisioning

andculturalESs,respectively(Haaseetal.2014).As

comparedtootherecosystemslikewetlandsornatural

forests,theattentiongiventourbanESsisstillinsufficient

(Go

´

mez-BaggethunandBarton2013),especiallywhenthe

focusisontheurbanforestalone(24%ofstudiesinthe

meta-analysisbyHaaseetal.2014).Intheanalysiscarried

outinthispaperweestablishedthatEESsincludeallESs

sensustricto,excepttheculturalservices(Fig.1).

BecauseEESsarebiodiversity-based,speciescomposi-

tionandcommunitystructureoccurringinurbanforestsare

crucialforthedeliveryofanyEESincities(Cardinale

etal.2012).Air-andclimate-relatedEESscompriseair

purification,climateregulationandCsequestration

(McDonaldetal.2007;Armsonetal.2012;Lafortezzaand

Chen2016).Othergoodsandservicescomprisethe

deliveryofenergy,food,non-timberforestproducts

10

InstituteofResearchonTerrestrialEcosystems(IRET),

CNR,Headquarters,ViaMarconi2,Porano,Italy

11

ForestFacultyinSkopje,UniversitySSCyrilandMethodius,

1000Skopje,Macedonia

12

FacultyofEngineeringandtheEnvironment,Universityof

Southampton,Highfield,SouthamptonSO171BJ,UK

13

ARGANS,260RouteduPinMontard,

06904SophiaAntipolis,France

14

DepartmentofLandscapeDesignandSustainable

Ecosystems,Agrarian-technologicalInstitute,RUDN

University,Miklukho-MaklayaStr.,6,Moscow,Russia

117198

123

detal.

RegulaƟon of AIR, WATER,

SOIL and CLIMATE

Provisionof HABITAT

QUALITY

Provisionof other

GOODS and SERVICES

Fig.1Type,relationshipsandmaindriversoftheenvironmental

ecosystemservices(EESs)ofurbanforests(UF).WeclassifyUF

EESsintothreecategories:(1)regulationofair,water,soiland

climate;(2)provisioningofhabitatquality;and(3)provisioningof

othergoodsandservices,withhabitatqualityascentraltotheother

ndrivers(UFmanagementandclimatechange)affect

allthethreeEESs

(NTFPs),freshandcleanwater,regulationofwaterrunoff

anderosion(Guoetal.2000;Royetal.2012).TheseEESs

actatthelocallevel,etorneighborhoodscale,

butmayalsoexertanimpactattheregionallevel,for

example,inrelationtoclimate-orwater-regulatingeffects

(Guoetal.2000).SeveralurbanforestEESsarecoupledto

ample,wateravailabilitycaninfluence

thecoolingeffectofurbanforests,butcanalsoaffectthe

lutionin

urbanizedareascanresultinpollutedsoils(Davidsonetal.

2006),surfacewaters(LePapeetal.2012)andground-

water(Galloetal.2012).Moreover,thedifferentenvi-

ronmentalconditionsoftenobservedwithintheurban

environmentascomparedtoitssurroundingscanaffectthe

physiologyofplants(Sicardetal.2016)andconsequently

theircapacitytoprovideEESs(Calfapietraetal.2015).

Science-basedevidenceonurbanforestEESsisneededto

identifyandassesstrade-offs,disservices(environmental,

socialandfinancial)andcomplexinteractionsamongdif-

tance,certaintreespecies(s)

mighttakeupgreatamountsofozone,whichisbeneficial

intermsofairquality,butthesamespeciesmightbea

strongemitterofbiogenicvolatileorganiccompounds

(BVOCs)andthuscontributetotheformationofozone

itself(Calfapietraetal.2013).

ToquantifytheurbanforestEESsanduntanglethe

complexinterrelationshipsamongtheminachangingcli-

mateandunderdifferentsocio-culturalconditions,EES

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmentalecosystemservicesprovidedby…1983

indicatorsandtheirbenchmarkdefinitionsshouldbe

identifiindicatorsshouldbewelldefined,

measurable,reliableandstableparametersthataredirectly

orindirectlyrelatedwithoneormoreecosystemprocesses

ntificationandmonitoring

ofindicatorshelptolinkdecisionmakinginurbanplan-

ningandmanagementwithrelevantscientificknowledge

(Maesetal.2016).Suchisthecaseforbiodiversity,where

accountingfortheneedsofmultiplebiologicalgroupsisa

challengethatcanbeaddressedwiththeproperindicators

(Pinhoetal.2016).

Thereisanurgentneedtounderstandthecomplex

relationshipshighlightedabove,inparticularconsidering

theongoingclimaticandsocio-economicalchangesthat

affectworldwideurbanizedareasinanunprecedentedway.

Therefore,theaimofthispaperistoprovideanimproved

classificationofurbanforestEESs,discusstheirbenefits,

specificityandrelevanceinthecontextofotherEESs,and

defirkisanoutcome

oftheactivitiesoftheCOSTActionFP1204‘Green

Infrastructureapproach:linkingenvironmentalwithsocial

aspectsinstudyingandmanagingurbanforests’

(GreenInUrbs).

Theenvironmentalecosystemservicesofurban

forests

ClassificationofurbanforestEESs

WeclassifiedurbanforestEESsintothreemaincategories:

regulationofair,water,soilandclimate;provisioningof

habitatquality;andprovisioningofothergoodsandser-

nbythegreenarrowsinFig.1,habitat

quality,inthebroadersenseofitsdefinition,asthequality

oftheaboveandbelowgroundspacewhereurbantrees

live,iscentralfortheprovisioningofalltheotherEESs,

whileair,water,soilandclimateEESsalsoaffectthe

deliveryofothergoodsandservices(Chenetal.2016;

Giannicoetal.2016;Marianietal.2016;Pesolaetal.

2017).Ahighhabitatqualityofthelivingspaceofurban

treeswillpositivelyaffecttheirgrowth,survivaland

reproduction,enhancingtheirpotentialprovisionofmul-

nbenefitsandinter-

linkagesaresummarizedinFig.2bydifferentcolours.

Fifty-threepercentofthe36indicatorssuggestedhereinare

relevanttomorethanonesinglebenefit,whichhighlights

thecomplexinterrelationshipsamongdifferenturbanforest

icatorsofwiderapplicabilityaretreeand

,densityandcontinuityofthe

plantcover,treeage,architecture,diameteratbreastheight

(DBH),leafareaindex(LAI),canopyheight,treeheight),

followedbyleafphysicaltraits(shape,persistence,

orientation,wettability,hairiness,roughness,toughness,

albedo)andtreespeciescomposition(speciesidentityand

relativeabundance).

eithertheimpactontheenvironmentandthegeneralper-

ceptionbythepopulation,differsalongarural–urban

transect(Fig.3).Ameliorationofairqualityandmicro-

climate,aswellasbuildingpreservation,areofutmost

importanceincitiesgiventhedensityofpopulationand

builtinfrastructures,whileCO

2

sequestration,provisionof

energy,nutrientsandresources,andrestorationofsoiland

waterarequantitativelymoreimportantforforestsinrural

tqualityforbiodiversityisextremelyimpor-

tantinbothurbanandruralforests.

Regulationofair,water,soilandclimate

Byinteractingwiththeatmosphere,urbanforestsprovide

ervicescanbeclassified

intothreemajortypes:(1)ameliorationofairquality;(2)

restorationofwaterandsoil;(3)ameliorationofthe

microclimateandremovalofthegreenhousegas(GHG)

CO

2

fromtheatmosphere(Fig.2).TheseEESsprovidea

numberofbenefitsthataresummarizedas:(1)reductionof

airpollution;(2)soil/waterretention;(3)ameliorationof

thermalcomfort;and(4)carbonsequestration(thenumbers

refertotheindicatorsinFig.2).Foreachbenefit,avariety

indicatorscanbeeithercharacteristicsofindividualtrees

andtreecanopies(writteninlightgreeninFig.2)or

characteristicsoftheenvironmentwherethetreesare

located(inblackinFig.2).

Ameliorationofairquality

Urbanairpollutionisamajorthreattocitizens’health

(Pascaletal.2013).

nitrogenoxides(NO

x

),sulphurdioxide(SO

2

)andpartic-

ulatematter(PM),aredirectlyemittedbycombustionin

industrialprocessesandroadandnon-roadtransport(EEA

2015).Secondarypollutants,(O

3

)andsecondary

organicaerosols(SOA),areformedbyreactionsofpre-

cursorssuchasNO

x

andVOCs(LelieveldandDentener

2000).Amongthemajorairpollutants,PM,nitrogen

dioxide(NO

2

)andground-levelO

3

arestillthemostseri-

ouspollutantsintermsofimpactsonthehealthofEuro-

peanpopulation(EuropeanEnvironmentAgency2018),

andshouldbeprioritiesinurbancontext.

AirpollutionmitigationisarelevantEESprovidedby

urbanforestsduetoairpollutiondepositionandfiltering

(Nowaketal.2006;Escobedoetal.2011).Urbanforests

havebeenarguedtophytoremediatetheairbyremoving

PMandgases(Nowak2006;Groteetal.2016;Sicardetal.

2018).Areaswithhighurbanforestdensity,infact,have

123

detal.

lowerPMthanothersites(Irgaetal.2015).Althoughmost

oftheestimatessuggestquitelowmitigationpotentialsin

termsofatmosphericconcentrations,suchsmallpercent-

agestranslateintosignificantsavingsintermsofhuman

health(Nowaketal.2015,2018).

Urbanforestscanreducetheconcentrationofpollutants

intheatmospherebydirectdepositiononplantsurfaces

andstomataluptakeofgasesinsidetheleaves(Cieslik

etal.2009;Niinemetsetal.2014).Non-stomatalremoval

processesincludephysicaldepositiononanyexternal

surface,andapplytobothgasandparticlephases,although

itisimportanttoconsiderthatgasexchangealwaysoccurs

inabidirectionalmanner(Niinemetsetal.2014).Larger

treecrownshaveagreaterpotentialofamelioratingair

qualitybymaximizingpollutantdeposition(Paolettietal.

2004),eventhoughedgesofshrubsandsmallertreescan

beplantedextremelynearthesourceofpollution(

traffic)andthusalsomaximizepollutantfiltering(Popek

etal.2013;Morietal.2015).Therefore,thecharacteristics

ofthetreecover,inparticulardensityandcontinuityof

crowns,sizeandarchitectureofindividualtreecrowns,and

leafareaperunitgroundsurfacearea(LAI),arerecom-

,leafsurface

characteristics,forexample,cuticularmorphology,leaf

123

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmentalecosystemservicesprovidedby…1985

b

Fig.2Classificationofthethreemainenvironmentalecosystem

services(EESs)providedbyurbanforests(inredintheouterlayer),

theirtypesandbenefits(1–12)(nextlayer),andindicators(wedges).

Interlinksofeachindicatortoabenefitaremarkedbythesame

torsofenvironmentorbiodiversityarewritteninblack.

descriptionofeachindicator:(a)Mainstandcharacteristicsare

density,continuityandage(VilharandSimonc

ˇ

ic

ˇ

2013;Frehneretal.

2005);(b)Maintreecharacteristicsarearchitecture,DBH,LAI,

canopyheight,treeheight(Tiwaryetal.2016;Nowaketal.2002;

ColdingandBarthel2013);(c)mainleafphysicaltraitsareshape,

persistence,orientation,wettability,hairiness,roughness,toughness,

albedo(LlorensandDomingo2007);(d)(Lietal.2007);(e)(Kumar

andImam2013);(f)Useofvapourpressuredeficitrecommended

(TiwaryandKumar2014);(g)(TiwaryandKumar2014);(h)Main

treeplacementcharacteristicsaredistancetoroad,arrangement,

orientation(Amorimetal.2013;Salmondetal.2013;Vosetal.2013;

GromkeandBlocken2015);(i)(Calfapietraetal.2013);

(j)(Carin

˜

anosetal.2016;Zielloetal.2012);(k)(Galloetal.

2012;LePapeetal.2012;TiwaryandKumar2014);(l)(Kleinetal.

2014);(m)(Patakietal.2011);(n)(Pearlmutteretal.2007;Shashua-

Baretal.2011);(o)(Fuetal.2015);(p)orplantcarbonstorage

(BISYPLAN2012);(q)(BaeandRyu2015);(r)includingnumberof

speciesandalphadiversity(Handleyetal.2015;Ikinetal.2015;

OishiandTabata2015);(s)(Knop2016);(t)Mainleafchemicaltraits

arechemistryandpalatability(Backhausetal.2014);(u)Main

speciescompositioncharacteristicsarespeciesidentityandrelative

abundance(Karpetal.2011;Ikinetal.2015;OishiandTabata2015);

(v)(SadanandanandRheindt2015);(w)Maincoarsewoodydebris

,densityofdeadwoodanddecaystages

(LehvavirtaandRita2002;LeRouxetal.2014);(x)Maintree-related

microhabitatscharacteristicsaredensitiesofcavities,cracks,bark

loss,anddeadbranches(LehvavirtaandRita2002;Terhoand

Hallaksela2008;LeRouxetal.2014);(y)Maintopologiesoftrophic

networkinteractionsarediversity,nestedness,andconnectance

(Baldocketal.2015;HarrisonandWinfree2015);(z)Main

functionalredundancycharacteristicsarenumberoffunctionally

redundantspecieswithinaneffectgroup(Elmqvistetal.2003;

Laliberte

´

etal.2010);(a)(Elmqvistetal.2003;Laliberte

´

etal.2010);

(ß)(TurriniandKnop2015);(r)(Braakeretal.2014a;Baldocketal.

2015;HarrisonandWinfree2015);(k)(AIEL2008);(u)(Lambin

andMeyfroidt2011);(w)(Bhatetal.2010);(q)(Lambinand

Meyfroidt2011);(p)(McLainetal.2012);(l)(Ticktinand

Shackleton2011)

wettabilityandhairiness,affectPM(Kardeletal.2012)

andO

3

deposition(Lietal.2018)thusrepresentinga

suitableindicator.

AnotherimportantleaftraitaffectingtheEESairquality

isthepersistenceoffoliagethroughouttheyear(evergreen

species)oronlyduringthegrowingseason(deciduous

species).Stagnantatmosphericconditionscombinedwith

higherprimaryPMemissionsfromresidentialcombustion

,European

EnvironmentAgency2018).Therefore,andwithoutcon-

sideringothereventualeffects,evergreenspeciesarerec-

contrast,gaseouspollutants,andinparticularO

3

,increase

duringthegrowingseason(Paoletti2006,2009);thus,

deciduousspeciesarebettersuitedforfilteringgaseousair

Fig.3Schematicrepresentationofthemaintypesofenvironmental

ecosystemservices(EESs)andhowtheirrelativeimportancechanges

sprovidedbyurbanforestsare

similartothoseprovidedbyforestsinruralareas,whiletherelative

importancedoesdifferexceptforhabitatquality,whichisequally

importantalongtheurban–ruralgradient

pollutantsprovidedtheydonotemitBVOCsoremitthem

atalowrate,asBVOCsfavourtheO

3

formation(Cal-

fapietraetal.2013).Inaddition,deciduousspeciesmay

havehigherstomatalconductancethanevergreenspecies

(Larcher1995)andthusmaximisetheairpollutantuptake

depositiononleafsurfacesmay

beratherlimitedunderdryconditions,whileonwet

wetness,however,isadifficultparametertomeasureand

cannotbeproposedasanindicator,whereasthevapor

pressuredeficitoftheair(VPD)isasimpleparameter

combiningairtemperatureandrelativehumidity(RH)and

canberecommendedasaproxyofleafcapacityforwet

deposition(orreleaseoncetheleavesdryoutandthe

volatilesaregassedout).

Thecapacityoftreestoremovepollutantsmaylargely

differunderstressconditions(Sicardetal.2018).Species

selectionforairpollutionmitigationshouldthusconsider

theabilityofatreespeciestoadapttolocalconditions;for

example,sclerophyllousspeciesadaptbettertowarm

environments(Larcher1995).Awater-savingapproachby

activelycontrollingstomatalconductanceisalsotypicalin

warmclimates(mostcommonlyinevergreenneedle-

leavedspecies),whereasawater-spendingstrategyismore

typicalintemperate/coldregions(indeciduousbroad-

leavedspecies)(LoGulloandSalleo1988;Karabourniotis

etal.2014).

Insideleaves,gaseouspollutantscanbescavengedby

antioxidantenzymes(Niinemetsetal.2014).Although

123

1986

suchscavengingabilityisspecies-specific,extensiveindi-

vidualvariability,broadseasonalityandnumerouscom-

poundsinvolvedinscavengingmaketheassessmentofthis

parameterunsuitableasanindicatoroftheEESairquality.

Non-stomatalremovalprocessesalsoincludechemical

depositionresultingfromgas-phasereactionsbetween

pollutants(mostlyO

3

andNO

x

)andBVOCsemittedfrom

,plantsorsoil)(Faresetal.2010).The

emissionofBVOCsisspecies-specificandislight-and

temperature-dependent(Groteetal.2013;Niinemetsetal.

2011).HighBVOCemittersaretypicallybroadleafplants,

suchasthegenusEucalyptus,PopulusandQuercus,with

thehighestemissionsoccurringduringspringandsummer

(BenjaminandWiner1998;Calfapietraetal.,2009).The

downsideisthatBVOCsthemselvescanpromotehigherair

pollutionduetotheproductionofsecondarypollutants

(Calfapietraetal.2013).AdoptinglowBVOC-emitting

speciesinurbanforestsisthuscrucialfortheEESair

quality(BenjaminandWiner1998;Renetal.2014).In

additiontothespecies-specificBVOCemissionfactor,

however,theamountofemittingleavesaffectsthetotal

ore,largercrowns

constituteanegativeindicatorofairqualityinBVOC-

emittingspecies.

Atrade-off(orenvironmentaldisservice)ofurbanfor-

pe,113millionindividuals

sufferfromallergicrhinitisand68millionfromallergic

asthma(EFA2011);bothnumberswilllikelyincreasedue

toclimatechange(Forsbergetal.2012).Pollenaffects

humanhealthbytriggeringsuchallergicreactions(Bartra

etal.2007;Carin

˜

anosetal.2016).Pollendepositionon

leafsurfaces,however,helpstoabatepollenconcentrations

intheair(DzierzanowskiandGawronski2011;Terzaghi

etal.2013)likelybymechanismssimilartothoseregu-

anforestpollution-pollen

nexus,however,tance,recent

evidencesuggeststhatairpollutioncanchangetheprotein

profileofallergenicpollensandthismayincreasethe

symptomaticresponseinsensitivepeople(Hingeetal.

2017).ThereviewbyGroteetal.(2016),producedwithin

COSTActionFP1204,pointsouttocrucialknowledge

gapsassociatedwiththeemissionofpollenandVOCs,

stressingtheneedofholisticinvestigationsoftheseinter-

relatedprocesses.

Researchhasshownthatthepresenceofroadsidetrees

instreet-canyonscandisrupttheupwardstransportofair

pollutantemissions,increasingtheirstoragewithinthe

canyonandreducingthepenetrationofcleanairfromaloft.

Asaresult,higherpollutantconcentrationsmaybe

observedatpedestrianlevelwithinvegetatedcanyons

(Amorimetal.2013;Salmondetal.2013;Vosetal.2013;

GromkeandBlocken2015),whichcanalsoconstitutea

123

detal.

tstudyranked95

urbanplantspeciesbasedontheabilitytomaximizeair

quality,byremovingO

3

,NO

x

andPM,andminimizethe

associateddisservices(Sicardetal.2018).However,fur-

therinvestigationoftheinter-relationsbetweenplant

characteristics,microclimate,streetconfigurationandpol-

lutantemissionsisstillwarranted.

Restorationofsoilandwater

Urbanizationcannegativelyimpactstreamanddrinking

waterqualitybyincreasingtheloadsofnutrients,metals

andorganicpollutantstosurfaceandgroundwater(Gallo

etal.2012;LePapeetal.2012).Freshwaterprovisioning

andwaterpurificationareoftopicalinterestinurbanized

areas(VilharandSimonc

ˇ

ic

ˇ

2013).Urbanization,causing

soilsealingandareductionofvegetatedsurfaces,increases

floodingfrequencyanddurationduetoenhancedparti-

tioningofrainfallintorunoff(Galloetal.2012).Urban

forestscontributetostormwaterharvestingthroughthe

interceptionofprecipitation(LlorensandDomingo2007),

therebyplayingamajorroleinsustainingurbanwater

balanceandreducingstormwaterrunoff(Patakietal.

2011).Owingtotheirlevelsofinfluence,canopyandleaf

characteristics(includingcanopystructureanddensity;

shapeandorientationoftheleaves)aresuitableindicators

forthisbenefit.

Theinfluenceofforestcoveronsoilwaterretention

capacitydependsonthemedium-andlong-term

improvementofsoilconditions(Frehneretal.2005).

Urbanforestscanincreasethiscapacityespeciallyinthe

caseofslowlydrainedtoverywetsoils,whereas

improvementinwelldrainedsoilsismuchless(Lee1980).

Infiltrationduetourbanforestsdependsmainlyonthe

densityandcontinuityoftreecanopiesandgroundvege-

tationcover,andisoflittleimportanceforindividual

street-trees(VilharandSimonc

ˇ

ic

ˇ

2013).Soilwaterreten-

tioncapacityiscloselylinkedtotherootsystemperfor-

manceoftreesandincludesthewater-holdingcapacityof

organicandmineralsoil,aswellasofthelitterlayer(Klein

etal.2014).Incities,however,,

ore,the

indicatorsforthisbenefitare:leaftraits(shapeandorien-

tation;ous),speciescomposition,tree

andplantcovercharacteristics(rootsystem,density,con-

tinuity,andplacement),precipitationandrunoff,andsoil

water-holdingcapacity.

Ameliorationofthemicroclimate

Awell-knowneffectofurbandevelopmentisthewarmer

temperatureincitiescomparedtothesurroundingrural

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmentalecosystemservicesprovidedby…1987

areas,knownastheurbanheatisland(UHI)(Oke1982).

Themagnitudeofwarmingthatcharacterizesagivencity

UHI,omfortandenergy

demand,-

age,urbantemperaturesareabout1–3°Cwarmerthanthe

surroundingruralenvironments,butunderwarmsummer

conditionstheycanbe[10°Cwarmer(Millsetal.2010).

Vegetationcontributestothereductionofheatstressand

windspeedeveninthesurroundingareas,withacooling

effectthatcanextendhorizontallyforupto1000minto

thebuilt-uparea(Bowleretal.2010;Klemmetal.2015).

Thelargestcoolingimpactoftreesisobservedonclearand

hotsummerdays(Bowleretal.2010).Inwinter,airtem-

peratureisslightlyreducedbyevergreentrees,withno

clearimpactonthermalcomfort(Cohenetal.2012).

Coolingofairtemperatureduetourbanforestsishigher

duringthedaythanduringthenightinsummerandthe

oppositeistrueinwinter(atleastinthedry-warmcondi-

tionsofthestudybyCohenetal.(2012)),whereascooling

ofsurfacetemperatureisgreaterduringthedayinsummer

andnearlysimilarduringthenightthroughouttheyear.

Surfacetemperaturewithinagreenspacemaybe15–20°C

lowerthanthatofthesurroundingurbanarea,givingriseto

urbanairtemperaturescoolerby0.3–9.5°C(Saaronietal.

2018).ThereviewpaperbySaaronietal.(2018),also

supportedbyCOSTActionFP1204,showednoapparent

correlationofthispark-inducedcoolingwithintheclimatic

region,whileatendencyforlargergreensites([2ha)to

induceastrongercoolingeffect([4°C)wasobserved.

However,theextentandmagnitudeoftheimpactson

humancomfortandbuildingenergydemandarefarfrom

beingeffectivelyquantifiedespeciallyduetotheirsite-

specificnature.

Urbanforestsamelioratethemicroclimateessentially

viaevapotranspirationandshading(DimoudiandNikolo-

poulou2013).Shadingbytreesreducesbothshort-wave

(direct,diffuseandreflected)andlong-waveradiation

emittedfromsurfaces(Saaronietal.2018).Whenleaves

areheatedbysolarradiation,thecoolingprocesstakes

ationoccursfromwet

,afterrainfall),whiletranspirationtakes

,shadingbytreesproducesa

netcoolingeffectinthebelow-canopyregion(Akbarietal.

2001).Plantfunctionaltraitsplayamajorroleinthissense,

sincecrownarchitectureandshape,leafclumpingand

orientation,andtheamountoffoliage(oftenexpressedas

LAI)determinetheinterceptionofsolarradiation(Cescatti

andNiinemets2004;Disney2015).Evergreentreesimpact

themicroclimatethroughouttheyear,whereastheeffectof

deciduousbroadleavesismostlyrestrictedtothegrowing

yrepresentabenefitintemperateregions

wherethepenetrationofsunraysthroughthecanopyis

benefi,extensiveareasof

shadowareusuallynotdesiredinoutdoorurbanenviron-

mentsathighlatitudecities,whichcreatesanadditional

challengeforarchitectsandurbanplanners(Lindbergetal.

2014).

Themostrelevantenvironmentalindicatorsinthe

ameliorationoftheurbanmicroclimateareairtemperature

andRH,astheycontributetothethermalcomfortofpeople

(Suscaetal.2011),

UniversalThermalClimateIndex(UTCI)andthePhysio-

logicallyEquivalentTemperature(PET)areuseful

biometeorologicalindices(Matzarakisetal.1999;Bro

¨

de

etal.2012),butwereconsideredtoocomplexforbeing

includedinFig.2asindicators.

Sequestrationofcarbondioxide(CO

2

)

Anotherimportantbenefitofurbanforestsistheircapacity

toremoveCO

2

ghtoccur

directlythroughphotosynthesisandindirectlythrough

energysavingstriggeredbymicroclimaticamelioration

(Rosenfeldetal.1998).Incities,theanthropogenicemis-

sionofCO

2

isfarabovethecapacityoftreestosequester

andstoreit(Briberetal.2013).Forinstance,urbanforests

intheUSAwereestimatedtostore712MtC,corre-

spondingtoagrosssequestrationof23MtCannually

(NowakandCrane2002),i.e.,16%oftheCstoredin

naturalforests(Woodburyetal.2007).Conversely,urban

forestsemitCO

2

totheatmosphereviarespiratorypro-

r,astheremovalusuallyexceedsthe

emission,forestsactasanetsinkofatmosphericC

(Thorntonetal.2002).Photosynthesistakesplaceunder

favourableconditionsforplants,whilestresscausedby

pruningorseveredroughtmaypromoterespiratorypro-

cesses,whichinsomecasesinducetreestoactasanetC

ral,CO

2

uptakecapacityperleafareaunitis

species-specific,beinghigherindeciduousbroadleavesand

lowerinevergreenspecies(Wrightetal.2004).Total

uptakedependsonboththephotosyntheticcapacityand

totalamountoffoliage,aswellasontheradiationavailable

withintreecanopies(Niinemets2015).Allthesetraits

tration

capacityvariesalsowiththetypeofgreenspace,being

higherinroadsidevegetationthatisclosertothetraffic

source(Wuetal.2010).TheCremovedfromtheatmo-

sphereisthenstoredinabove-andbelow-groundbiomass

andinsoilorganicmatter,whichareotherrelevantindi-

catorsofthelong-termcapacityofurbanforeststostore

singsoilorganicmatter,however,is

negligibleforindividualstreet-treesintheshortterm(Vi-

dal-Beaudetetal.2015).

123

1988

Provisioningofhabitatquality

Provisionofhabitatforbiodiversity

Forestsareamongthemostspecies-richterrestrial

ecosystems(Crocietal.2008;JimandLiu2001;Ku

¨

hn

etal.2004).Thisextendedmulti-dimensionalgreenspace

representsaresourceforurbanbiodiversity,including

wood-dwellingorganisms(Grimmetal.2008).Ifwell

designedandmanaged,urbanforestsareexpectedto

favourtheoverallgreenconnectivityacrossfragmented

anddenselybuiltareasenhancingthepermeabilityofthe

urbanmatrixforforest-andwood-dwellingspeciesandfor

biodiversityingeneral(Vergnesetal.2012;LaPointetal.

2015).

Inthelastdecades,biodiversityhasemergedasoneof

themostimportantenvironmentalconcerns(Hooperetal.

2005).Thereisagrowingconsensusthatbiodiversity

determinesecosystemfunctionsandunderlyingservices

(Isbelletal.2011;Cardinaleetal.2012)whilecontributing

,urbanbio-

diversityconstitutesnotonlyamatterofscientificinterest

butalsoanobjectofincreasingpublicconcern,andcould

beparticularlysensibletoclimatechange(Puppimde

Oliveiraetal.2014).Anapproachbasedonfunctional

diversitycanprovidethelinkbetweenbiodiversityand

EESsbytakingintoaccountthecommonfunctionsthat

speciesperforminecosystemsorthewayspeciesrespond

toanenvironmentalconstraint(Pinhoetal.2016).

TheEESsthaturbanforestsprovidetohabitatquality

canbeclassifiedintothreemajortypes:(i)provisionof

habitatforbiodiversity;(ii)supportforresilienturban

ecosystems,and(iii)provisionofgeneticdiversity(Fig.2).

TheseEESsprovideanumberofbenefitsthataresum-

marizedas:(5)provisionofresourcesforspecies-richand

abundantcommunities;(6)provisionof‘‘nursery’’treesfor

nativesaproxylicspecies;(7)supportoffunctionallyresi-

lientspeciescommunities,and8)provisionofecological

connectivityandgeneticflow(thenumbersrefertoFig.2).

Thebenefitindicatorscanbeeitherfeaturesofindividual

treesandforestpatchesorcharacteristicsoftheenviron-

mentwheretreesandforestsarelocated,ortaxonomicand

functionalmetricsreflectingdifferentcomponentsofbio-

diversity(Fig.2).

Speciesrichnessandpopulationsizeareimportant

componentsofbiodiversity,whichreflecttheamountand

,typeofleavesand

brancharchitecture)x

vegetationstructuresarelikelytoincreasetheavailability

offoragingandbreedingresourcesforamultitudeof

organisms,enhancingthenumberanddiversityofspecies

within(alphadiversity)andacross(betadiversity)forest

stands(McElhinnyetal.2006;Tassickeretal.2006).

123

detal.

Spatialandtemporalheterogeneityofurbanforestscanbe

obtainedbymaximizingspeciescompositionanddemo-

graphicstructures,thusaffectingthetypeofleaves,branch

architecture,tree-relatedmicrohabitatsandcoarsewoody

debris.

Urbanforestscanmaintainandevenincreaseoverall

richnessthankstothepresenceofexoticplant/animal

species(Pys

ˇ

ek1998;Celesti-Grapowetal.2006;Nobis

etal.2009),whosenumberishigherinurbanenvironments

comparedtoruralareas(Czechetal.2000;McKinney

2002,2006;Sattleretal.2011,butseeCadotteetal.2017).

Thepresenceofexoticanimalspecies,especiallyarthro-

pods,intheurbanenvironmentmightbeunderestimated

duetothelackofinformationandreferencespecieslists.

However,itiswelldocumentedthattheintroductionof

alienspeciescancausenegativeeffectsonforestecosys-

tems,bymodifyinghabitatsandpotentiallydisruptsome

naturalinteractionsamongspecies,whichcanalterkey

functionsinsuchecosystems(McAfeeetal.2006).Onthe

otherhanditcanalsoprovidearesourcefororganisms

fromdifferenttrophiclevels,thustakingoverthefunc-

tionalroleofendemicspeciesthatgotlocallyextinct

(Finertyetal.2016;GrayandvanHeezik2016;).

Besidesfavouringspeciesthatuseurbanforestsasa

sourceoffoodandshelter,urbanforestsprovidehabitatfor

obligatecanopy-andwood-dwellingorganisms,also

defipecies,suchasfungi,

mosses,lichens(Speight1989),aredependentupon

decayedwoodduringpartoftheirlifecycle.‘‘Nursery’’

treesforsaproxylicspeciesarerelatedtotheconceptof

‘‘habitattrees’’definedasdeadorliving,verylargeandold

microhabitat-bearingtrees(Bu

¨

tleretal.2013).Thepres-

enceofwoodydebrisandthenumberoftree-related

habitatsinfluencethespeciescompositionandgenetic

diversityoftheseorganisms,andimprovethefunctional

connectivitybetweenforestpatchesandoldtrees(Van-

dekerkhoveetal.2013).Singlehabitattreesorpartsof

urbanforeststandsneedtobewellconnectedwithfloral

feedingresourcesinsunnyopengreenareasdistributed

withinafewhundredmeters.

SupportforresilienturbanecosystemsUrbanforestsare

usuallydominatedbyopenenvironmentsandareoften

designedtoaccomplishrecreational,aestheticandregula-

tionfunctions(Nowak2006).Thecharacteristicsofurban

habitatsandthesimilarityinurbangreenssuggestthatthe

specieslivingincitiesconvergetowardasubsetofrather

homogenousspeciessharingacommonsuiteoftraits

(Haaseetal.2014;Knappetal.2008).Thiseffectisrec-

ognizedas‘biotichomogenization’(McKinney2006),and

havedeepimplicationsforconservation(butseeColding

2007;Lepczyketal.2017whenurbangreenspace

heterogeneityisincludedinthemodels).Specieslivingin

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmentalecosystemservicesprovidedby…1989

urbanareastendtobemoregeneralistthanspecieslivingin

ruralareasorintothewild(Claveletal.2011).The

increaseofecologicallysimilarspeciescanleadan

increaseofredundancyoftheassemblages(differentspe-

cieswithsimilartraits,ecologicalrolesandfunctions)

(AlbertiandMarzluff2004).Sincemanyecosystemfunc-

tionsultimatelyrelyoninteractionsbetweenprimarypro-

ducers(plants)andothertrophiclevels(ators,

soildecomposers,andherbivores),theredundancyand

,Elmqvistetal.2003)shouldbe

extendedtomulti-trophicsystems(Lavoreletal.2013)and

includemetricsofbioticinteractions(formeasuringfunc-

tionalredundancyandresponsediversity)asindicatorsof

,Freyetal.

2018;Treschetal.2019).

Provisionofgeneticdiversity

Heterogeneousandstructurallycomplexurbanforests

mightnotbeenoughtomaintainviablepopulationsand

promotefunctionallyresilientspeciescommunitiesiftrees

andforestpatchesremainisolatedortoosmall(Turriniand

Knop2015).Communitiesinsmallandisolatedpatches

tendtocontainfewerspeciesandtobecomeincreasingly

homogenousintaxonomicandfunctionalcomposition

(McKinney2006;Knappetal.2008;TurriniandKnop

2015),thereforereducingtheresponsediversityofspecies

communities(Elmqvistetal.2003).Thespatialconfigu-

rationofurbanforestsand,inparticular,habitatconnec-

tivity,definedastheconnectednessofhabitatpatchesfora

givenspecies(FischerandLindenmayer2007),play

importantrolesinenhancingtaxonomicandfunctional

vourtrophicinteractions,

successfulreproduction,dispersalandgeneticexchange,

andproviderefugefrompredators(Tayloretal.2006),

whileenhancingmeta-populationandmeta-community

dynamics(Leiboldetal.2004;Vergnesetal.2012;

LaPointetal.2015).Thisisparticularlyimportantinview

tialscaleatwhich

ecologicalconnectivityvariesdependsonspeciescompo-

sition(LaPointetal.2015).Forsessileandlowdispersal

organisms,suchasplants,soilfaunaandgrounddwellers,

thespatialconfigurationofurbanforestsactswithintens

andhundredsofmeters,whileitexpandsuptoafew

kilometersforflyingorganismssuchasbees,birdsandbats

(Sattleretal.2010;Braakeretal.2014a,b).Indicatorsof

well-connectedpopulationsofforest-dwellingspeciesand

nt

patterns,thegeneticdiversityofmodelspeciesandfunc-

tionalresilienceofcommunities,includingtopologiesof

multi-trophicnetworkinteractions,arepromisingtools(La

Pointetal.2015).

Provisioningofothergoodsandservices

Provisionofenergyandnutrients

AnothermajorcategoryofEESsprovidedbyurbanforests

istheprovisioningofothergoodsandservices(Go

´

mez-

BaggethunandBarton2013;HansenandPauleit2014).

TheseEESscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtwotypes:

(i)provisionofenergyandnutrients;and(ii)provisionof

greyinfrastructureresilience(Fig.2).TheseEEStypes

provideanumberofbenefits:(9)bioenergyandcompost;

(10)foodandfeed;(11)non-timberforestproducts

(NTFPs);and(12)buildingpreservation(thenumbersrefer

toFig.2).Individualindicatorscharacterizingtheprovi-

sioningofdifferentgoodsandservicesfromtreesorthe

environmentaresuggestedanddiscussedbelow.

Twopossibilitiesforresourcerecoveryareusually

considered:nutrientrecoveryviacompostingthefoliage

and/orenergyrecoveryviabiomassproductivity(interms

ofcalorificvalue).Woodyvegetationisanimportant

renewableresourceforbioenergy,alleviatingthegrowing

demandforcroppedbiofuels(deRichteretal.2009).

Large-scalecommercialplantationsoftreessuchaspoplar

andwillow,mainlyinurbanparksandperi-urbanwood-

lands,mayfulfilthecurrentdriveforenergysustainability

fromrenewablebiomass(Djomoetal.2015;Seideletal.

2015).Forexample,sustainablygrowntreebiomassis

projectedtoprovideupto10%oftheUKenergyneedsby

2050andtosignificantlycontributetothereductionof

GHGemissions(DECC2012).Thebiomasspotentialis

evaluatedbymultiplyingtheprimaryproductionbythe

residue-to-productratio,whichisatree-specificindicator

(BISYPLAN2012).Therecoveryofbioenergy,mainlyas

heatfromthecombustionofmanagedurbanforests,is

ting

value(expressedinwettons)isrelatedtoitstypicalstoi-

chiometricchemicalcomposition(AIEL2008).Therefore,

suitableindicatorsofbioenergyprovisionpotentialinclude

tree-specificstructuralcharacteristics,biomassyieldand

antlimitations

arethemanyenergycrops,suchaswillowandpoplar,

whicharestrongemittersofallergensandBVOCs(Olof-

ssonetal.2005;Owenetal.2013),andbiomasscom-

bustionthatemitsconsiderableamountsofPM(Limetal.

2015),bothofwhichcouldadverselyaffectairquality.

Urbanforestshavethepotentialtoofferasourceof

,foodandfeed).Com-

munityscaleandindividualinitiativesaregainingpopu-

larityforsecuringsustainablefoodproductionwhile

ensuringminimalenvironmentalfootprints(Lambinand

Meyfroidt2011).Althoughthereisahugepotentialfor

urbanforestEESstoprovideasustainablesupplyof

nutritionfromtrees(,seeds,roots),thereare

123

1990

limitationsposedbytheirtoxicityandedibilityforhuman

consumptiondrivenbypollutionoftheurbanhabitats

(Bhatetal.2010).Therefore,toxicityandthecommercial

valueofproductswereidentifiedasthekeyindicatorsfor

thisbenefition,productivityisconsideredasa

measureofthevolumeofsupplythatcanbeacquiredto

ndicatorsareapplicabletowards

ensuringcost-competitivenessandwidespreadsustainabil-

ityincentivesinboththedevelopedanddevelopingworlds.

Mostresourcemanagementdecisionsarestrongly

infl

associatedwithNTFPs(,flowers,leaves,bark,

cones,galls,resins,springbuds,fungi,honey)accountfor

approximately25–96%ofthetotaleconomicvalueof

forests(Palahietal.2008).Thecost-competitivenessof

theseproducts,however,largelydependsontheiracces-

sibility(McLainetal.2012)andmarketability(Ticktinand

Shackleton2011),whichhavebeenidentifiedaskey

indicatorsforassessingthisbenefit,togetherwiththecli-

maticconditionsthataffectNTFPgrowth.

Provisionofgreyinfrastructureresilience

Incorporatingurbanforestsintotheurbanbuiltspaceis

gainingpopularityasacost-effectiveandlong-termmea-

sureformitigatingclimatechangeimpactsassociatedwith

proliferatinggreyinfrastructure(CABE2010;Hamdouch

andDepret2010;Wangetal.2018).Theroleofurban

forestsindevelopingresilienceandenvironmentalstew-

ardshipincities(ColdingandBarthel2013)andinthe

preservationofbuildings(includingbridges,carparksand

historicalmonuments)mainly

attributedtothealteredmicro-meteorologicalprofileand

chemicalwitheringofbuildingmaterialscausedbyair

pollutionandthechangingclimate(KumarandImam

2013;TiwaryandKumar2014).Asthisisinfluencedbyan

interplaybetweenplantmorphological,biophysicaland

chemicaltraits,thesuitableindicatorsofthisEESbenefit

includetreecanopyarchitectureandpositionrelativeto

buildinginfrastructures,leafphysicaltraits,micro-meteo-

rologyandtheconcentrationofpollutants.

Conclusions

Ecosystemservicesplayacrucialroleintheoptimization

orestscanreduceairpol-

lutionandgreenhousegasemissions,sequestercarbon,

regulateairtemperature,mitigatestormwaterrunoff,

reducenoise,aswellasproviderecreational,social,psy-

chologicalandaestheticbenefistudy,weprovide

36indicatorsthatcanbeusedforquantifyingurbanforest

EESs,predictingclimatechangeeffectsonurbanforests,

123

detal.

anddevelopingscientificallysoundstrategiesforoptimiz-

ingthemanagementofurbanforestsandmaximizingtheir

ndicatorsmayalsobecombinedtodevelop

summaryindices,suchasthe‘‘pollutionfluxpotential’’

index(Tiwaryetal.2016).Aroundtwo-thirdsofthemare

indicatorsoftreesandforeststandsandcanbeobtainedby

measurementsorliteraturedata,whileone-thirdareindi-

catorsofenvironmentalorbiodiversitycharacteristicsand

seindicatorsallow

efficientquantitativeassessmentsofurbanforestEESson

largeareasandacrosscities,eventhoughtheystillneedto

beadequatelyandrigorouslytested,especiallywhen

appliedacrosstaxa,

improvedunderstandingisneededtoincreasethewilling-

nessofpublicentities(Vuletic

´

etal.2010)andprivate

companies(Glu

¨

cketal.2010)toacknowledgeurbanforest

EESs.

Citiesareconstantlyevolving(Stottetal.2015).Dif-

ferencesintheurbanizationprocessdependonthehistor-

icalbackground,urbandesignandavailablegreenspaces

ore,guidelinesontheopti-

mizationofEESsandtherelatedchoiceofspeciesand

plantingarchitecturearecase-specificandmustrelyon

edifferentEESsarestrongly

interconnectedandsometimesshowcomplexandcon-

trastinginteractions,thechoiceanddesignofurbanforests

requirealocalbutscience-basedapproach.A‘‘species

selector’’shouldbedevelopedineachcontinentasatoolto

helppolicy-makerstodefinesuitableurbanforestman-

agement,includingpropertreespeciesselection,by

ging

approachinthisregardistoconsiderurbanforestsas

Nature-BasedSolutionsintheurbanenvironmentand

integrationofNature-BasedSolutionsisrecognizedasa

waytoachieveseveralenvironmental,social,cultural,

economic,policyandplanningaims(HansenandPauleit

2014;MadureiraandAndresen2014),andasatoolto

maximizecityresiliencetoclimatechangewhilemini-

,maintenancecosts,

infrastructuredamage/degradation,allergicreactions).

ThereisstilllittleinformationavailableontheEESspro-

videdbyurbanforestsandtowhatextenturbanforestsplay

portant

torecognizethaturbanforestEESsconfersubstantial

economicvaluetohumansocietiesandactivitiesinurban

areas(Haaseetal.2014).Accuratecalculationsofurban

forestEEScapacity,basedontherecommendedindicators,

willprovideabasisfortheeconomicevaluationsof

changesandenablestakeholderstoestimatethetrade-offs

betweenEESsandotherservices,suchasagriculturalfood

production(MEA2005)orurbanization(Dobbsetal.

2011).

Towardsanintegrativeapproachtoevaluatetheenvironmentalecosystemservicesprovidedby…1991

AcknowledgementsThisworkwascarriedoutwithinCOSTAction

ktheparticipantsofourconferences

forsharingtheirexpertknowledgeindefiningtheurbanforestEES

publicationwasfinanciallysupportedbytheMinistryofEducation

andScienceoftheRussianFederation(theAgreementNo.

02.A03.21.0008).WeacknowledgeARCHESConseilsfordrafting

ationwascarriedoutwithinthePRINproject

EUFORICC.

OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsofthe

CreativeCommonsAttribution4.0InternationalLicense(crea

/licenses/by/4.0/),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,

distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedyougive

appropriatecredittotheoriginalauthor(s)andthesource,providea

linktotheCreativeCommonslicense,andindicateifchangeswere

made.

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