2024年4月4日发(作者：旧电脑卡顿严重解决方法)

2.1 Learning Strategies

Listening strategy is a particular part of learning strategy, so we should first

have a further study of language learning strategy. Second language teaching in

recent years has shifted from the quest for the perfect teaching method to the

internal factors of learners. According to Michael H. Long and Jack C. Richards,

research in the case of learners has led to the study of how learners approach

learning, both in and out of classrooms, and in and out of the kinds of strategies

and cognitive processing they use in second language acquisition (O’Malley &

Chamot, 2001). As the theory and practice of language teaching enters a new

century, the idea of helping learners succeed in developing autonomy has become

one of the prominent themes in the field of teaching education. Research on the

behaviors involved in autonomous language learning has to a large extent drawn

upon research on learning strategies (Benson, 2005). The study of learning

strategies in second language acquisition aims at identifying the range of

strategies.

The emergence of learning strategies traced back to answering the question:

Why are some people more effective at learning than others are? Effective learning

is not merely a matter of a high IQ. What seems to be more important is the

learners’ ability to respond to the particular learning situation and to manage

their learning in an appropriate manner. There are many issues that need sorting

out before strategy training can be implemented effectively. One of the most

essential issues is the definition and classification of learning strategy. This paper

aims to enhance and complement the current theory.

2.1.1 Definitions of Learning Strategies

It is not easy to tie down the definition of learning strategies partly because

the concept of “strategy” itself is somewhat fuzzy and partly because different

people use terms such as skills, strategies, processes, and approaches differently.

Researchers have not gained a common understanding of learning strategies.

Some definitions of learning strategies produced by different researchers are

as follows: A language learning strategy is an attempt to develop linguistic and

sociolinguistic competence in the target language. Learning strategies are

techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to

facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information

(Chomot, 1987). Language learning strategies are behaviors or actions which

learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and

enjoyable (Oxford, 1989). Learning strategies are learning processes, which are

consciously selected by the learner. The words “consciously select” are

important because they demonstrate the special character of strategy (Cohen,

2000). Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn

a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so (Ellis, 1994).

The above definitions show that different researchers define

language-learning strategies in different ways. All these definitions provide views

of understanding the process of learning a language. They are fundamental to

laying the foundation for the areas of research.

2.1.2 Classifications of Learning Strategies

Ellis notes that learning strategies differ in a number of ways, reflecting the

type of learners under study, the setting and the particular interests of the

researchers. Therefore, different researchers form different frameworks to classify

learning strategies. The categories that have been established are high-inference

in nature, which often needs considerable explanation on the part of the

researchers (Ellis, 1994). In fact, there are many advantages in the classification of

strategies. Strategy subsets enable researchers to describe the correspondence

between mental processes and strategic processes (O’Malley&Chamot, 2001).

Strategy inventory, as a valuable reference guide, may play an important role for

teachers to carry on strategy trainings. Here are two versions of learning

strategies’ classification.

The works of Oxford (1990), and O’Malley and Chamot (1990) have made

great contributions to the knowledge of learning strategies. Among their work,

Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is perhaps the most

comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date. Oxford divides learning

strategies into two main groups: direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct

strategies consist of subconscious strategies directly involving the target language

while indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning through

more conscious strategies, such as focusing, planning, and evaluating. These two

classes are subdivided into six subcategories: memory, cognitive, compensation,

social, affective and metacognitive. However, SILL fails to provide details of

language learning strategies related to any specific language.

Unlike Oxford, O’Malley and Chamot have differentiated strategies into three

categories depending on the level or type of processing involved: metacoginitive,

cognitive and social/affective. They ground the study of learning strategies within

the information-processing model of learning developed by Anderson.

Metacognitive strategies involve consciously directing one’s efforts into the

learning task. These strategies are higher order executive skills that may entail

planning learning, monitoring the process of learning, and evaluating the success

of a particular strategy. They have an executive function. In O’Malley and Chamot

framework of learning strategies, metacognitive strategies include advanced

organization, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, advanced

preparation, self-monitoring and self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies are defined

as learning strategies that “operate directly on incoming information,

manipulating it in ways that enhance learning” (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990).

They have an operative or cognitive-processing function, directly linked to the

performance of particular learning tasks. Cognitive strategies include repetition,

resource, grouping, note-taking，deduction/induction, elaboration, summarization,

translation, transfer and inference. Social/affective strategies concern the ways in

which learners interact with other learners and native speakers or take control of

one’s own feelings on language learning. Examples of such strategies are

cooperation and question for clarification.

O’Malley and Chamot’s three-way distinction is useful and has been

generally accepted (Ellis, 1994). Perhaps the reason is that this classification is

more consistent with a learner’s use of strategies. It implies that second language

acquisition is an active and dynamic mental process. For teachers, the classification

is found to be useful for describing how to integrate strategies into instruction

(O’Malley and Chamot, 2001).

2.2 Listening Strategies

Listening strategies are based on learning strategies. Many scholars consider

listening strategies are another kind of learning strategies and they classify

listening strategies into self-monitoring, listening methods and cooperative and

self-control. In the literature, learning strategies have been used interchangeably

with “learner strategy” “study skills” and “learning techniques”. In this

dissertation, the term“learning strategy”, especially the term “listening

strategies” adopted and defined as a special way learners employ to facilitate and

enhance their learning.

A diversity of classifications of listening strategies emerge in the literature,

that is: primary vs. secondary; direct vs. indirect; functional vs. formal .Yet the most

widely accepted one, which is underlined by the theory of information processing,

falls into three broad categories: cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and

affective strategies.

2.2.1 Metacognitive Strategies

Learners are said to be capable of becoming aware of their own mental

processes. This kind of ability includes recognizing which kinds of learning tasks

cause difficulties, which approaches to remembering information work better than

others, and how to solve different kinds of problems.

According to O'Malley and Chamot, metacognitive strategies involve knowing

about listening and controlling listening through planning, monitoring and

evaluating the listening activities. Monitoring has been described as a key process

that distinguishes good learners from poor learners. In listening comprehension,

monitoring consists of maintaining awareness of the task demands and

information content. Two metacognitive strategies that support monitoring are

selective attention and directed attention. Selective attention focuses on specific

information anticipated in the message while directed attention focuses more

generally on the task demands and content. Metacognitive strategies are generally

considered to be applicable across a variety of tasks，whereas cognitive strategies

may be more tailored to specific learning activities. Metacognitive strategies

involve thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process,

monitoring learning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning after it has

occurred. For example, metacognitive strategies a learner may use in listening

include: planning ways of remembering new words encountered in listening;

deciding which approaches to improve listening abilities are more effective and

evaluating his or her progress and making decisions about what to concentrate on

in the future.

The overall strategies constituting of metacognitive strategies are as the

followings:

1). Advanced organizers: making a general but comprehensive preview of the

concept or principle before the listening activity.

2) Directed attention: deciding in advance to attend in general to a listening

task and to ignore irrelevant distracters.

3) Selective attention: deciding in advance to attend to specific aspect of

listening input or situational details that will cue the retention of listening input.

4) Self-management: understanding the conditions that help one listen and

rehearsing linguistic components necessary to carry out an upcoming listening

task

5) Self-monitoring: correcting one's speech for accuracy in pronunciation,

grammar，vocabulary or for appropriateness related to the setting or to the people

who are present

6) Delayed production: Consciously deciding to postpone speaking to learn

initially through listening comprehension.

7) Self-evaluation: Checking the outcomes of one’s own listening

comprehension against measure of completeness and accuracy.

2.2.2 Cognition and Cognitive Strategies

Cognition is the various mental process used in thinking, remembering,

perceiving, recognizing, classifying, etc. Cognitive strategies refer to processes and

behaviors used by learners to help them improve their ability and learn or

remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific

classroom tasks and activities. Cognitive strategies involve active manipulation of

the listening task and include the following: rehearsal, repeating the names of

objects or items that have been heard, or practicing a longer language sequence:

organization or grouping information to be retained in ways that will enhance

comprehension and retention; elaboration or relating new information to

information that has previously been stored in memory, or interconnecting

portions of the new text. Elaboration is a particularly significant strategy for the

benefits of comprehension and retention that have been demonstrated with its

use. Furthermore, elaborative strategies may be considered a super ordinate

category for other strategies such as inference，transfer, deduction, imagery, and

summarization (O’Malley, Chamot, and Walker, l987:287-306).

The overall strategies constituting of cognitive strategies are of the followings:

1) Repetition: imitating a listening model, including overt practice and silent

rehearsal

2) Resourcing: expanding a definition of a word，or concept through use of

target language reference materials.

3) Directed Physical Response: relating new information to physical actions, as

with directives

4) Translation: using the first language as a base for understanding the second

language

5) Grouping: reordering or reclassifying and perhaps labeling the listening

material to be listened to based on common attributes

6)Note-taking: writing down the main idea, important points，outline or

summary of information presented orally or in writing

7) Deduction: consciously applying rules to produce or understand the second

language

8) Recombination: constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language

sequence by combining known elements in a new way

9) Imagery: relating new information to visual concepts in memory via familiar

easily retrievable visualizations, phrases or locations

10) Auditory Representation: retention of the second or similar sound for a

word, phrase，or longer language sequence

11) Key word: remembering a new word in the second language by (a)

identifying a familiar word in the first language, that sounds like or otherwise

resembles the new word, and (b) generating easily recalled images of some

relationship with the new word

12) Contextualization: placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language

sequence

13) Elaboration: elating new information to other concepts in memory

14) Transfer: using previously acquired linguistic and/or conceptual

knowledge to facilitate a new listening task

15) Inference: using available information to guess meanings of new items to

predict outcomes or fill in missing information

2.2.3 Social/ Affective Strategies

In this dissertation, the author follows Krashen (1982) in saying that one’s

‘affect’ toward a particular thing or action, situation, or experience is how that

thing or that action or that resulting effect on one’s emotions. Affect is

considered broadly as aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude. Social/

affective strategies play important roles in instructional systems designed for

second language learner. These strategies entail cooperative teaming, questioning

for clarification and affective control over listening experiences.

The following demonstrates the overall strategies constituted of

social/affective strategies:

1) Cooperation: working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool

information, or model a listening activity.

2) Question for Clarification: asking a teacher or other native speaker for

repetition, paraphrasing explanation and/or examples.

2.3 Listening Comprehension

As discussed previously, listening comprehension has received much attention

of the listening researchers in recent years. Listening strategies are of interest for

what they reveal about the ways listeners manage their interaction with listening

materials and how these strategies are related to listening comprehension. This

part gives a review on definitions of listening comprehension, processes of

listening comprehension and factors affecting listening comprehension.

2.3.1 Definitions of Listening Comprehension

In fact, there is no definite definition of listening comprehension for different

experts have different views. Some experts believe that listening is the process by

which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind. Brown gives both

narrow and broad definitions of listening. In narrow definition, listening is a

process by which listeners come to an interpretation for a stream of speech; in

broad sense, listening is the process by which the listeners use these

interpretations for there intended purpose (Brown, 1994). Listening is the process

of receiving, attending and assigning meaning to aural stimuli (Anderson and

Lynch, 1988). Listening is essentially an inferential process based on a perception

of cues rather than on a straightforward matching of sound to meaning (Rost,

1990).

2.3.2 Process of Listening Comprehension

Although comprehending the spoken form of the target language has been

regarded as one of the most difficulties for the language learners, it is always

being neglected in language teaching. Just like the definitions of the listening

comprehension, different ideas about the process are expressed.

Most experts classify listening comprehension process into three phases. For

example, listening comprehension process covers the access to vocabulary,

parsing, and memory processes (Cohen, 2000). Listening comprehension process

contains perception, construction and utilization (Gui Shichun, 1997). Listening

comprehension process concerns about three processes: perceptual, parsing and

utilization (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). According to many investigations, the

one put forward by O’Malley and Chamot is widely accepted.

2.3.3 Factors Affect Listening Comprehension

Listening comprehension is affected by many factors. Many experts have done

a lot of studies on them and classified them into several types. For example, some

internal factors of psycholinguistic and experiential nature that have an effect on

comprehension contain second language listeners’ knowledge of the second

language linguistic code, degree of socio-culture competence and strategic

competence. Some experts believe that not only internal factors but also external

factors influence the performance of listening comprehension. These external

factors are about the characteristics of the listening materials such as the

pronunciation lexis, grammar topics of the materials and so on.

Perhaps the most influential study in this area is Boyle’s which suggests that

listener factors, speaker factors and factors in the material and medium are the

three types of factors that affect listening comprehension (Boyle, 1984). Listener

factors consist of experience/practice in listening to the target language: use of

media (film, radio, TV, etc.); general intelligence and general background

knowledge of the world. Speakers factors are of language ability of the speakers’

pronunciation, accent, voice, etc, and speed of delivery and personality of the

speaker. For factors in the material and medium, they consist of the language used

to convey the message: phonological features, including stress, intonation, weak

forms (esp. in conversation) lexicon, syntax, cohesion, etc.; difficulty of content and

concepts, especially if the material is abstract, technical, highly specialized, lengthy

and poorly organized.

2.3.4 Listening Comprehension in TEM-4

The current TEM-4 listening comprehension sub-test comprises three sections.

Section A contains 7-9 short statements that occur in isolation from any particular

context in which they might naturally be found. The examinees are expected to

select one of four response options (given in the test book) that are synonymous

with the original statement sentences or elliptical responses. Statement items are

designed to test examinees’ ability to comprehend a spoken sentence based on

its syntactic structure. Section B includes 7-9 short conversations between two

speakers. In most instances, each participant in the conversation speaks once.

Examinees, after hearing each short conversation, select one of four response

options given in the test book. The oral comprehension demands of dialogue

items are similar to those of statement items, but they also require that examinees

understand the interrelationship between turns in a conversational segment.

Questions probe examinees’ recognition of the syntax of the speakers’

utterances, the content of what is said, and the speech acts and interrelationships

among speech acts represented by the speakers’ utterances. Some questions

probe examinees’ knowledge of word meanings, idioms, and paralinguistic cues

in the context of conversation. Finally, some questions test examinees’ ability to

draw inferences about the characteristics of the speakers or the situations

represented by the conversations. Section C usually contains 4 pieces of news, with

each followed by 2(occasionally 1) questions about the content.

2.4 The Application of Listening Strategies to Listening Comprehension in

TEM-4

As we know, listening comprehension in TEM-4 contains three parts:

statement, conversation and news. It is known that listening strategies are general

things, which can be applied to every kind of listening questions. Here the author

takes conversations as examples to analyze the use and effect of listening

strategies on listening conversation in TEM-4.

Listening strategies are generally understood as the application of language

learning strategies for the task of listening comprehension. In most conversations

of TEM-4, each participant in the conversation speaks once. Examinees, after

hearing each short conversation, select one of four response options given in the

test book. The oral comprehension demands of dialogue items are similar to those

of statement items, but they also require that examinees understand the

interrelationship between turns in a conversational segment. Questions probe

examinees’ recognition of the syntax of the speakers’ utterances, the content of

what is said, and the speech acts and interrelationships among speech acts

represented by the speakers’ utterances. Some questions probe examinees’

knowledge of word meanings, idioms, and paralinguistic cues in the context of

conversation. Finally, some questions test examinees’ ability to draw inferences

about the characteristics of the speakers or the situations represented by the

conversations.

In fact, listening is a process during which we could use metacoginitive,

cognitive and social/affective .When we do a question of listening conversation we

will use these three strategies respectively. For instance, before listening we will

use metacognitive (planning, monitoring, and evaluating comprehension)

strategies to do the preparative work. We will first look over the question and

options, and then we will use our metacognitive knowledge to predict the content

of the conversation. Sometimes we may find that some questions can be solved

without listening to the materials and only using our metacognitive knowledge.

When we are in the process we should have directed attention and selective

attention that are belong to metacognitive strategies. Metacognition introduced

in the listening process will help English learners，especially the less effective

listeners，use the learning strategies well and actively participate in the language

learning course，during which the consequent regulation contributes to building

learners’ language system.

However, during the listening comprehension we could also use cognitive

(solving learning problems by considering how to store and retrieve information).

For example, we often listen to the key words and important information which

concern about the question and the options. Then we should retrieve the key

information to the question. Also, if we come across some difficult words that are

difficult to remember, we sometimes write down it quickly in simple way without

losing mind during the process of listening. In all, the above are about cognitive

strategy.

Social/affective strategies concern about the ways in which learners interact

with other learners and native speakers or take control of one’s own feelings on

language learning. Examples of such strategies are cooperation and question for

clarification. During the process of listening, our psychological condition plays an

important role. For example, if the listener has a bad condition in spirit when he

listens to the materials, he may lose his mind. The result of the listening may be

disappointing. However, if the listener is in a good condition, then he may get a

good result. Therefore, social/affective strategies play important roles in the

process of listening comprehension. What’s more, social/affective strategies are

also necessary after finishing the task of listening, for if we want to improve more,

we should correct our mistakes and learn some lessons from our mistakes. We

could have an interaction with other students or the teachers to generalize the skill

of our own and prepare for the next test. As we say, the best way to improve our

listening comprehension is to speak with the native speakers, so if we are in

circumstances with native speakers, we may practice our listening very well.