2024年4月29日发(作者：)

语言学概论

1. Language—a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

communication

2. Nature of language

Arbitrary

.

Systematic

.

Vocal

.

Symbolic

.

human specific

for

communication

3. Design features of language

① Productivity/creativity. produce or understand indefinite sentences by using

finite set of rules

② Duality. Sounds and meaning system

③ Arbitrariness: no connection between words and meanings.

④ Displacement. overcome barriers caused by space and time

⑤ Transferability. Spoken and read, transfer into each other.

⑥ Cultural transmission：Language and culture are closely connected.

Languages are parts of culture， reflect culture and pass on from generation to

generation by learning

4. Function of language

① informative function(最重要)

② phatic function—maintain social relationship

③ recording function

④ performative function带来行为效果

⑤ physiological/emotive/expressive function

⑥ recreation function(pleasure function)

5. some basic distinctions in linguistic（ 前三个是老师重点讲的）

⑴ langue and parole(语言和言语)

﹡Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

of a speech community

Parole refers to particular realization of langue

﹡Langue is the social, conventional side of language

Parle is individualized speech

﹡Langue is relatively stable and systematic, whereas

Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors

﹡Langue and Parole together constitute language

⑵synchronic and diachronic(共识语言学和历识语言学)

﹡Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time

﹡when we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic

study(synchronic linguistics)[state of language at any point in history]

﹡when we study language developments through time diachronic

study(diachronic/linguistics)[differences of two or more than two languages over

time]

⑶competence and performance(能力和表现)

﹡competence—the knowledge that native speakers have of their language

as a system of abstract formal relations

① what he knows

② the ideal language users knowledge of that language system

③ stable

﹡performance—their actual linguistic behavior， the actual use of this

knowledge

① what he does

② the actual realization of the language user’s knowledge

③ variable

﹡The language user’s performance is not a true reflection of his

competence

⑷ prescriptive and descriptive

Prescriptive grammars tell what should be in the language.

Descriptive grammars tell what is in the language.

⑸ speech and writing

In the past, spoken language is primary, but not the written, and the spoken

language in some sense dependent upon the standard written language. However,

language is primarily vocal.

6. Scope of phonetics ①articulatory phonetics 发音语言学

（简答题） ②acoustic phonetics声学语言学

③auditory phonetics听觉语言学

nt分类

⑴place of articulation

① bilabial双唇音 ② labiodental 唇齿音 ③ interdental /dental齿间音

④ alveolar齿龈音 ⑤ palatal腭音 ⑥ velar软腭音

⑦ uvula小舌音 ⑧ glottal声门音

⑵manner of articulation

① stops/plosives爆破音 ② fricatives摩擦音 ③ affricates塞擦音

④ nasals鼻音 ⑤ liquids流音 ⑥ glides滑音

8. Phonemes 音素 （定义题）

定义：the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller

units

9. Minimal pairs and sets (定义或者分析题)

﹡Minimal pairs: two different forms are identical in every way except for one

sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are

called minimal pairs

﹡Minimal sets: more than two different forms are identical in every way

except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the

words are called minimal sets

10. Complementary distribution互补分布（分析题—见原来那张练习）

When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or

environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution

11. Pitch音高

Intonation语调---pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than

the syllables

Tone声调--- pitch variations

12. Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries

grammatical and/or semantic meaning. 可分为 free morpheme and bound

morpheme.

free morpheme：some morphemes like car, talk, friend, can stand alone as

words. (定义题) 又可分为lexical morpheme and functional morpheme

bound morpheme(affixes): the morphemes which can not stand alone, but

function only as parts of words.

（定义题） 又可分为derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme

13. Word formation (简答题)

① Compounding合成词

② Derivation派生词

③ Conversion词形不变，词性变化

④ abbreviation(clipping 和 initials＆acronyms)缩略词

⑤ blending混合词

⑥ back formation逆构词(减词缀)

⑦ neologism创造新词

⑧ borrowing外来词

14. IC Analysis(Immediate Constituents Analysis) （定义题）

The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using

binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents is obtained.

15. Sentence types

⑴structural approach

① simple sentence

② coordinate or compound sentence

③ complex sentence

⑵functional approach

① declarative sentence

② interrogative sentence

③ imperative sentence

④ exclamatory sentence

16. Leech’s seven type of meanings

⑴conceptual meaning概念意义

⑵associative meaning联想意义 connotative meaning内涵意义

Social meaning

Affective meaning

Reflected meaning词义间联系

Collocative meaning

⑶thematic meaning主位意义

17. Semantic field

The organization of related lexemes into a system which shows

relationship to one another

18. Synonymy ＆ Antonymy

﹡synonymy--words or expressions with the same or similar meaning

﹡antonymy --the relationship of oppositeness of meaning

分类 ① complementary antonyms

their

② gradable antonyms

③ relational opposites

19. Intersentential semantic relations (前两条重点)

⑴entailment蕴含关系

Something that logically follows what is asserted in the utterance

⑵presupposition前提

What is assumed by the speaker and/or assumed by him or her to be known to

the hearer before he or she makes the utterance

⑶implicature含义，言外之意

In communicative practice, the speaker may use an utterance to imply further

information. He or she may imply what he or she dose not literally means. Such

information is called implication

20. Speech Act Theory---Sentences are not always uttered just to say things,

but rather, they are used to do things

21. Speech Act

① locutionary act ② illocutionary act ③ perlocutionary act

22. The cooperative principle and the Politeness Principle

⑴The cooperative principle

① the maxim of quality ② the maxim of quantity

③ the maxim of relevance ④ the maxim of manner

⑵The Politeness Principle

① tact maxim得体 ② generosity maxim慷慨

③ approbation maxim赞誉 ④ modesty maxim谦虚

⑤ agreement maxim一致 ⑥ sympathy maxim同情

23. Dialect--any regional, social or ethnic variety of a language.

分类：①

regional dialect

—the language variety used in a geographical religion.

②

social dialect

—is used to describe differences in speech associated with

various social groups or classes. It could be further distinguished by gender, age,

ethnic group, religion and class.

③temporal dialect ④standard dialect

er语域

the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in

context

﹡Halliday’s register theory –register is determined by 3 factors

①field of discourse 话语范围

②mode of discourse 话语方式

③tenor of discourse 话语意旨

25. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

⑴linguistic determinism语言决定论

﹡The language we use to some extent determines the way in which we view

and think about the world around us

﹡2 versions(strong determinism and weak determinism)

⑵linguistic relativity语言相关论

﹡Distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language alone,

and there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages

26. Language planning

A deliberate attempt, usually at the level of the state or government

administration, to affect language use in order to prevent or solve some problems

of communication

27. Status planning

It changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the rights

of those who use it.

28. Development of first language acquisition (4 stages)

①the babbling stage

②the one-word stage

③the two-word stage

⑤ the telegraph to infinity stage

29. Language testing: the discrete point test, the communicative test

the integrative test ---cloze dictation, oral cloze test,

question & answer, paraphrase recognition

According to the purpose, tests fall into the achievement test, the

proficiency test,

the aptitude test, the diagnosis test.

All tests fall into the subject test & the objective test.