2024年3月16日发(作者：)

Great Britain was the world's foremost power during the 18th, 19th and early

20th centuries. Until the Suez crisis of 1956, the country was considered a

'superpower'. After 1956 however, with the loss of the empire, its dominant role in

global affairs was gradually diminished

1、 colonial expansion 16

th

century 殖民扩张

British foreign relations since 1600 have focused on achieving a balance of

power, with no country controlling the continent of Europe. The chief enemy, from

the Hundred Years' War until the defeat of Napoleon (1337-1815) was France, a

larger country with a more powerful army. The British were generally successful in

their many wars, with the notable exception of the American War of Independence

(1775–1783), when Britain, without any major allies, was defeated by the colonials

who had the support of France, the Netherlands and Spain. A favored diplomatic

strategy was subsidizing the armies of continental allies, such as Prussia, thereby

turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied

heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet

afloat with a full complement of bases across the globe.

The British built up a very large worldwide British Empire, which peaked in size

in the 1920-40 era and in wealth around 1900, then began to shrink until by the

1970s almost nothing was left but a "Commonwealth of Nations" that had little to

do.[2] Britain finally turned its attention to the continent, joining the European

Union.[3]

After 1900 Britain ended its "splendid isolation" by developing friendly

relations with the United States and Japan 1902. Even more important—by

forming the Triple Entente with France (1904) and Russia (1907), thus forging the

anti-German alliance that fought the First World War (1914-1918). The "special

relationship" with the U.S. endured. It played a pivotal role in the Second World

War and the Cold War, and is in effect today through NATO. By 2014, however, the

debate was underway whether Britain should reduce or cut its ties with the EU, and

whether Scotland should leave the UK.[

2、splendid isolation WW1大陆均势

Splendid isolation is the foreign policy pursued by Great Britain during the

late 19th century, especially under the Conservative Party premierships of

Benjamin Disraeli and the Marquess of Salisbury.

[1]

The term was coined by a

Canadian politician to praise Britain's minimal involvement in European affairs.

There has been much debate among historians as to whether this policy was

intentional or forced on Britain by contemporary events. Some historians, such as

John Charmley, have argued that splendid isolation was a fiction for the period

prior to the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892, and that the policy was reluctantly

pursued thereafter.

[2]

The Earl of Derby enunciated the policy in 1866 when he was

foreign minister:

it is the duty of the Government of this country, placed as it is with regard to

geographical position, to keep itself upon terms of goodwill with all surrounding

nations, but not to entangle itself with any single or monopolizing alliance with

any one of them; above all to endeavor not to interfere needlessly and vexatiously

with the internal affairs of any foreign country."

[2][3]

Background: During the late 19th century, Britain's primary goal in foreign

policy was to maintain the balance of power in Europe and to intervene should

that balance be upset. Its secondary goal was to protect its overseas interest in the

colonies and dominions, as free trade was what kept the Empire alive. The sea

routes to the colonies, especially those linking Britain to India (via the Suez Canal),

were vital.

The policy of 'Splendid Isolation' is perceived to have been characterized by a

reluctance to enter into permanent European alliances or commitments with the

other Great powers and by an increase in the importance given to British colonies,

protectorates and dependencies overseas in an era of increasing competition in

the wider world, a situation relatively unknown since Britain's conflicts with France

during the eighteenth century.

Abandonment of this policy

Some historians argue that Britain's isolation was formally ended by the 1902

Anglo-Japanese Alliance. However this is disputed by T.G. Otte, who argues that

the Anglo-Japanese Alliance actually reinforced Britain's aloofness from the

continent and the European alliance systems.

[9]

Britain began to normalize its

relations with European countries that it had disputes with, and the

Entente

cordiale

and the Anglo-Russian Entente were signed in 1904 and 1907 respectively.

The Alliance System was finally formed in the same year as the Triple Alliance and

Triple Entente, and is considered an important factor in the outbreak of World War

I.

[10]

3、allied powers 协约国一战时

4、splendid isolation

5、Policy of Appeasement WW2 绥靖主义

On 1 September 1939, German forces invaded Poland; Britain and France

joined the war against Germany. Chamberlain's conduct of the war was not

popular and, on 10 May 1940, Winston Churchill became Prime Minister. In July,

some politicians inside and outside the government were still willing to consider

Hitler's peace offer, but Churchill would not.[13] Chamberlain died on 9 November

the same year. Churchill delivered a tribute to him in which he said, "Whatever else

history may or may not say about these terrible, tremendous years, we can be sure

that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and

strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority, which were powerful, to save the

world from the awful, devastating struggle in which we are now engaged." [14]

After 1945 Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments.

Practically all the colonies became independent. Britain reduced its involvements

in the Middle east, with the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956 marking the end of its

status as a superpower. However Britain did forge close military ties with the

United States, and with traditional foes such as France and Germany, in the NATO

military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common

Market in 1973; it is now the European Union.[6] However it did not merge

financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which kept it partly

isolated from the EU financial crisis of 2011.[7]

6、Three Circle Diplomacy:三环外交 1948

7、Iron curtain policy 铁幕政策 1946

The Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary

dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until

the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union

to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the west and

non-Soviet-controlled areas. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the

countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. On either side

of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military

alliances:

Member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the

Warsaw Pact, with the Soviet Union as the leading state

Member countries of the European Community and/or the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization and with the United States as the leading country

Following a period of economic and political stagnation under Brezhnev and

his immediate successors, the Soviet Union decreased its intervention in Eastern

Bloc politics. Mikhail Gorbachev (General Secretary from 1985) decreased

adherence to the Brezhnev Doctrine,[70] which held that if socialism were

threatened in any state then other socialist governments had an obligation to

intervene to preserve it, in favor of the "Sinatra Doctrine". He also initiated the

policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (economic restructuring). A wave

of Revolutions occurred throughout the Eastern Bloc in 1989.

8、splendid isolation policy made a comeback in the British media in 2011,

when UK Prime Minister David Cameron refused to back a deal to rescue the euro

zone.[苏伊士] The EU plan for the banks was aimed to solve the European

sovereign-debt crisis, by amending the EU treaties, which included the EU financial

transaction tax. It would have cost Britain an estimated £26 billion a year. The veto

was welcomed by Conservative MPs who support the traditional Tory stance of

"splendid isolation" in Europe, and advocate financial independence to regulate its

own financial market.

9、Gunboat diplomacy 炮舰外交

The Second Anglo-Burmese War; 缅因战争 5 April 1852 – 20 December 1852)

was the second of the three wars fought between the Burmese and British forces

during the 19th century, with the outcome of the gradual extinction of Burmese

sovereignty and independence；

The Second Opium War, was a war pitting the British Empire and the Second

French Empire against the Qing dynasty of China, lasting from 1856 to 1860. It was

fought over similar issues as the First Opium War.

补充：WW1 1914 - Again highlighted the fact that Britain was going to lose

superpower status because of other countries had better economies, that were

growing faster, they had higher standard of living, better health and a more

educated nation.

Prince George, son of Britain's Prince William and his wife Catherine, Duchess

of Cambridge has caught the attention of the world and led a trend of

"diaper diplomacy

1

" during his first foreign visit to New Zealand and Australia.

The trip also reminds the public of his father's first appearance in Oceania more

than 30 years ago

乔治小王子——英国威廉王子和妻子凯瑟琳（剑桥公爵夫人）所生的儿子——首次海

外出访，在新西兰和澳大利亚率先开展“尿布外交”，引来全球瞩目。这次出访让公众回

忆起30多年前威廉小小年纪随父母访问新西兰。

许多媒体将乔治小王子的这次访问定名为diaper diplomacy ——“尿布外交”，足

见小王子的人气甚至超过了父母。小王子抵达新西兰当天天气条件恶劣，因此小王子错过

了famed Maori welcoming ceremony（著名的毛利人欢迎仪式）。不过小王子的父母和

毛利人长者举行了nose-touching ceremony（碰鼻礼）。

小王子的母亲凯特王妃当天身穿buttoned-up red coat（红色双排扣外套），头戴同

色系pillbox hat（平顶小圆帽），别着silver fern brooch（银蕨形胸针），抱着小王子走

下飞机。这枚胸针是伊丽莎白二世60年前访问新西兰时收到的礼物，silver fern（银蕨）

是新西兰特有的植物，是新西兰的标志。

Issue

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is highly important to the UK. Since

2011, the region has experienced major changes, driven by the political and

economic demands of citizens of the region for more inclusive, democratic

societies with a fair prospect of employment. MENA is also home to some of

the most long-running and high-profile foreign policy issues in the world,

including the current Syria crisis. MENA matters for our prosperity, too. Trade

between the UK and MENA exceeded £30 billion in 2011, and millions of

British tourists visit the region each year. Actions

Response to the Arab Spring: the Arab Partnership

Through the Arab Partnership (AP), a joint Foreign & Commonwealth Office

and Department for International Development (DFID) initiative, the government

is supporting political and economic reform in the Middle East and North Africa

region, to build a more inclusive, accountable MENA region. The AP includes

diplomatic support for political reform, a £110 million bilateral fund to finance

locally-led reform projects, and influencing work through multilateral

organisations, including the European Union, World Bank and International

Monetary Fund, to build support for the region. The AP is led by demands from

the region and its approach varies significantly from country to country in line with

individual country contexts.

Ongoing support in Libya

The UK supported the Libyan people as they sought greater freedom after 42

years of repression under the Qadhafi regime. At the beginning of the revolution

in March 2011, the UK was at the forefront of pushing for two UN Security Council

Resolutions to provide the international community with the legal mandate to take

all necessary measures to protect civilians from the threat of attack and to enforce

a no-fly zone.

Together with international partners, we are now providing a range of

assistance to the new Libyan government. It faces significant challenges as it seeks

to build a prosperous, open and democratic country which supports the rule of

law and human rights. But the amount that has been achieved since the end of the

conflict - most notably the successful national democratic elections held for the

first time in nearly half a century - shows the determination of the Libyan people

to rebuild their country after decades of misrule.

Finding an end to the crisis in Syria

The government is working with international partners to bring about an end

to violence and achieve a managed political transition. We have already

committed over £700 million to help alleviate the humanitarian crisis and help the

Syrian people prepare economically and politically for a new government. More on

the crisis in Syria.

Working to destroy the threat of ISIL

The government is working with international partners to dismantle and

ultimately destroy the terrorist organisation ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the

Levant also known as Islamic State, Da’esh or ISIS). We are undertaking a wide

range of political, humanitarian and military activity to stop ISIL and support Iraq

and Syria. The UK is playing an active role with airstrikes and intelligence gathering

as part of the wider international strategy against ISIL involving Arab, US, and

European nations. Find out more about the UK government’s actions to counter

ISIL.

The Middle East Peace Process

Resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of our top foreign policy

priorities. This conflict matters to British national security, and to the security of the

entire region, and we will take every opportunity to help promote a peaceful

2-state solution.

Stabilising Yemen

The UK is providing Yemen with £196 million from 2012 to 2015. Most of this

money will go to alleviate humanitarian suffering and to the Social Fund for

Development to improve rural infrastructure and expand social is

supporting Yemen’s long-term development, stability and security. More

on Yemen.

Broader Middle East and North Africa Initiative (BMENA)

The G8’s Broader Middle East and North Africa (BMENA) initiative is an

annual dialogue, run since 2004, between the governments and civil society

representatives of the G8 and the BMENA countries and territories. In 2013 the UK,

as the G8 Presidency, is co-chairing the BMENA initiative with the Egyptian

government.

Background

The Arab Spring has shown that demands for political and economic freedom

will spread widely by themselves, not because Western nations advocate these

values, but because all people everywhere aspire to these freedoms.

In his speech to the National Assembly in Kuwait on 22 February 2011, the

Prime Minister set out the UK’s approach to the Arab Spring, upholding universal

values, rights and freedoms, with respect for the different cultures, histories and

traditions of the countries in the region.