2023年12月15日发(作者：小米6多少钱)

Introduction25．1 Some conventions(一些规则习惯) Every professional paper should have at least one or two introductory paragraphs. In the

Introduction the writer sets the stage for the main topic. It provides information for the reader

about the paper, without giving the details of the work and conclusions. Often the Introduction is

used to put the research into perspective, by stating how it relates to other technical and

institutional work. The Introduction can range from half of a page to two pages. The purpose of the Introduction is to supply sufficient background information to allow the

reader to understand and evaluate the results of the present study without referring to previous

publications on the topic. The introduction should also provide the rationale for the present study.

The writer should state briefly and clearly his purpose in writing the paper. Much of the

Introduction should be written in the present tense because the writer will be referring primarily to

the problem and the related established know-ledge at the beginning of the work.(i) It should present the nature and scope of the problem investigated. Since there might be many

perspectives from which the writer can approach the problem, narrowing down the scope of work

and de-limiting the boundary of the study becomes necessary.(ii) The Introduction is the proper place to define any specialized terms or abbreviations intended

to be used.(iii) The Introduction should also inform the reader of the general purpose of the paper and

illustrate the primary objectives of the research.(iv) It should review the pertinent literature to orient the reader. In science and engineering studies

the literature is reviewed for several reasons, for example, to learn from the work of others, to give

credit to similar and relevant studies, to help the reader in further study to the topic, problem or

theory. In professional work it is essential to make it clear what contributions have been made by

others, and what the cur-rent work has achieved and contributed to further understanding. The

reader must never be in doubt what has already been established in the literature before, and what

the reported study has contributed.(v) The Introduction may also talk of the arrangement of the writing at the end of the Introduction.

In long papers, the mention of the arrangement of the writing enables the reader to understand the

pa-per more easily, and can make the reader feel convenient in further reading.25．2 Stabilized structure(稳定的结构方式)1．Establishing the scope of research(表示研究／讨论范围) Step l Claiming centrality(表明讨论中心话题) and／or Step 2 Making topic generalization(s)(总括所研究话题的现状) and／or Step 3 Reviewing previous research(综述前人研究)2．Establishing a niche(确立研究／讨论话题) Step l A Counter—claiming(反驳前人观点) Or Step l B Indicating a gap(表明前人研究空白) Or Step l C Question—raising(提出问题) Or

Step l D Continuing a tradition(继续前人研究)3．Occupying the niche(研究／讨论具体切人点) Step l A Outlining purposes(表明研究目的) Or Step l B Announcing present research(表明当前研究重点) Step 2 Announcing principal findings(表明主要发现) Step 3 Indicating the research article structure(表明文章结构)1．Establishing the scope of research(确定研究／讨论范围)Step 1 centrality claims: In the introduction, centrality claims are typically expressed in one

sentence, but can also be in two or more sentences. Typically, they are put at the beginning of the

Introduction. The author can introduce centrality claims by claiming interest or importance,

referring to the main character of the issue, or claiming that there are many other investigators

active in the area. Some typical examples are: ~ Recently, there has been a spate of interest in ~ In recent years, applied researchers have become increasingly ~ has generated ~ Recently, there has been wide ~ The time development ...is a classic problem in fluid mechanics. ~ have been favorite topics for analysis ~ Knowledge of ...has a great ~ The has become an important ~ The has been studied extensively in recent years. ~ Many investigators have recently ~ The relationship between ...has been studied by many authors. ~ A central is the The Introduction can also begins with step 2Step 2: making a topic generalization. Statements of topic generalizations generally fall into two

categories: statements about knowledge or practice, or statements about phenomena. Typical

examples of the first group are: ~ There is now much evidence to support the ~ The ...are still not completely understood. ~ A standard procedure for assessing ~ Education core courses are often Typically these statements express in general terms the current state of knowledge, of

technique, or of current requirements for further progress. The second group of topic generalizations refers to phenomena: ~ ...is a common finding in ~ An elaborate is found in the ... ~ English is rich in related words exhibiting "stress shifts". ~ There are many situations where examination scripts are marked and then re-marked by

another 3 Reviewing previous researchWhen reviewing previous research, the author needs to relate what has been found (claimed)

with who has found it (claimed it). There are generally two forms of citation: integral and non-integral. In the text of a report, integral citation usually names the author in text and the year of

publication in parentheses. Non-integral citation puts references at the end of a sentence or

paragraph inside parentheses. If there is just one author, the integral citation form is Jones (1987),

and the non-integral citation form is (Halliday, 1987). If there are two authors the citation should

be Jones and Smith (1987) or (Jones and Smith 1987). And when there are three or more authors,

the citation should be Jones et al. (1987) or (Jones et al., 1987). It should be noted that there is no

period after the word "et". If there are two or more references by the same authors and from the

same year, they are marked with an "a" and "b" etc. (Jones, et al., 1987a; Jones, et al., 1987b). A

semicolon (;) is used between references when you refer to more than one at the same time.A literature review should not be a laundry list, meaning that it should not be listing of

unrelated items. A literature review should be a coherent review of the main ideas and results of

published materials, as they relate to the topic or problem of the report being written. The length

of Literature Review is highly variable, from a paragraph to a few pages. The main patterns are illustrated with the following examples: Examples of integral citation

forms (直接引用方式) ~ Bile (1988) showed/shows that the moon is made of cheese. ~ The moon's cheesy composition is established by Bile (1988). ~ Brie's theory (1988) claims/claimed that the moon is made of cheese. ~ Brie's (1988) theory of lunar composition has general support. ~ According to Brie (1988), the moon is made of es of indirect citation forms (间接引用方式) .. ~ Previous research has shown that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988). ~ It has been shown that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988). ~ It has been established that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988). ~ The moon is probably made of cheese (Bile, 1988). ~ The moon may be made of cheese (of. Rock, 1989).2. Establishing a niche (确定研究/讨论话题) To establish a niche, the author usually starts with an adversative sentence-connector, most

commonly with however but also with such signals as but, nevertheless, yet, and unfortunately.

Step l A However, the results in such a degree of ... that ... has

become necessary. OrStep 1B Indicating a However, the sults in a significant amount of OrStep 1C However, it is not clear whether the an be modified to OrStep 1D Continuing a The remaining issue is to find a way of better controlling In this part, the author most typically starts with step 1B, indicating a gap. The author does not

counter-claim that the previous work is hopelessly misguided, but rather "suffers from some

limitations". Typical sentence patterns used to indicate a gap are listed below: ~ No research has been done on ... ~ Little effort has been spent on the ~ (Very) few researchers

~ The is overlooked. ~ Researchers have failed to ~ The result is misleading/questionable/inconclusive/limited. ~ The result off. _has several limitations. ~ The research can 3. Occupying the niche (研究/ 讨论具体切入点) Step 1A outlining purposes Or Step 1B Announcing present research Step 2 Announcing principal findings Step 3 indicating the research article structure In this part, step 1 is the obligatory element. In other words, either Step 1A or Step 1B must

occur in the Introduction. Step 1A indicates the author's main purpose or purposes. Step 1B

describes what the author considers to be the main features of his research. Typical examples are: ~ This paper reports on the ~ The aim of the present paper is ~ The main purpose of the experiment reported here ~ This study was designed ~ This paper aims to report the Most research article introductions end with Step 1. However, some may also end with Step 2

or Step 3. If Step 3 occurs, it always occurs at the end of the introduction. Examples are: ~ We have organized the rest of this paper in the ~ This paper is structured ~ The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections. Section 25.3 Example outline structures (结构范例)Outline structure 1 Recently, there has been a considerable Yet, there is a dearth of information. (2

direct questions) Recent studies have begun to explore these level. The

may be inferred from recent studies by ...The work of these researchers sheds light on ...However,

understanding ...in the is as yet unexplored territory. This study attempts to enter this

Our focus will The show a skilled novice Outline structure 2 Recently, the relationships between ...have been explored by scholars from a number of

disciplines. However, the precise has not been delineated a considerable amount of

research has been made into.., but As a result, no comprehensive theory appears to

exist. (review previous researches) Taken together, these The purposes of the

present study were two-fold: ; the The study thus extends the findings of

previous work Outline structure 3 Despite the announced few researchers have Of

course many studies No study, however, has used an experimental design. In the

light of this absence of experimental work, we conducted a pilot study (Rosen, 1985)...We

subsequently designed the present study, an experiment Our two research 25.4 Distinction of Abstract and Introduction (摘要和引言的区别) Generally there are three distinctions between Abstract and Introduction: (1) Discussions of previous research are rarely found in abstracts, whereas it is an important

part of the research article introductions. (2) Indication of methodology, experimental procedures, data collection, etc. used for present

research is considered crucial in research abstracts, but rare in article introductions. (3) Reporting of results or findings of research is considered as an important part of abstracts,

but it is rare in article introductions.25.5 An example introduction (引言范例)During the past 50 years, the United States has experienced the integration of the computer into

society. Progress has been made to the point that small, inexpensive computers with expanded

capabilities are available for innumerable uses. Many schools have purchased and are purchasing

microcomputers for infusion into their directed learning programs. Most individuals seem to agree that the microcomputer will continue to hold an important

role in education. Gubser (1980) and Hinton (1980) suggested phenomenal increases in the

numbers of computers both in the school and the home in the near future. There are always

problems with a sudden onslaught of new technology. Like any new tool that has not been fully

tried and tested, the role of the computer is in question. How should the computer be used in the

classroom? Should the computer be the teacher or a tool in the classroom in the same way as an

overhead projector? Can teachers do a better job of teaching certain types of materials with the

microcomputer than with conventional teaching methods? Will the microcomputer have different

effects on students with varying levels of experience? Schmidt (1982) identified three types of

microcomputer use in classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool and a means of providing

instruction. Foster and Kleene (1982) cite four uses of microcomputers in vocational agriculture:

drill and practice, tutorial, simulation and problem solving. The findings of studies examining the use of various forms of computer-assisted instruction

(CAI have been mixed. Studies by Hickey (1968) and Honeycutt (1974) indicated superior results

with CAI while studied by Ellis (1978), Caldwell (1980) and Belzer (1976) indicated little or no

significant effect. Although much work has been done to date, more studies need to be conducted

to ascertain the effects of microcomputer-assisted instruction in teaching various subjects in a

variety of learning situations. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of using micro-computer-assisted

instruction as compared to a lecture-discussion technique in teaching principles and methods of

cost recovery and investment credit on agriculture assets to graduate students in agricultural

education (Rohrbach, 1983). This topic was identified as being of importance to teachers in

providing them the necessary background to teach lessons in farm se The following two excerpts are taken from the same academic article. Which is the Abstract

and which is the Introduction? Why? (以下两篇短文分别摘自同一篇科研论文，区分哪篇是摘要，哪篇是前言，为什么?)Excerpt 1 The continental terrace of Israel consists of a 1-2-km-thick Pliocene-Quaternary sediment

wedge that narrows (from 60 to 16 km), steepens (2.5-3 to 6-8 ) and deepens (900-1200m) from

south to north. The continental terrace is the combined product of Nile-derived sedimentation

whose bulk and rate of deposition decrease with increasing distance from the Nile Delta, and

vertical tectonic uplift of Israel and Lebanon vs the subsidence of the adjacent submarine

Levantine Basin. The tectonic influence increases while the sedimentary influence decreases from

south to north (Neev et al., 1976; Almagor & Hall, 1984). Halokinetic slumping caused by

extensive mass movement over deep strata of Messinian (Late Miocene) evaporites scarred and

steepened the entire continental terrace of northern Israel and southern Lebanon (Almagor&

Garfunkel, 1979; Garfunkel & Almagor 1985, 1987; Almagor 1993). In the south, a balance

between continuous hemipelagic sedimentation and episodic dispersal of sediment, mostly by

earthquake-induced slumping, creates a smooth gentle bathymetry (Almagor, 1980, 1984, 1986;

Almagor & Michaeli, 1985). Along the steep slope north of Mount Carmel promontory mass

transport processes have shaped a scarred and canyon-fur-rowed morphology. These processes

were described in detail by Almagor(1992, 1993). The present study deals with the small-scale sedimentary structures as found in more than 60

sediment cores taken along the entire continental margin of Israel (Fig. 1) with special emphasis

and greater sampling density on the more dynamic northern continental slope (Fig. 2)Excerpt 2 The continental terrace of Israel consists of Nile-derived sediments. They are classified into

three major groups, according to their structures: (1) irregularly too wavy laminated, coarse-grained sediments (quartz and skeletal debris) of the flat outer shelf and upper bend of the slope

(10-20% of the bulk) which are influenced by currents. These sediments are bioturbated to various

degrees. Smectitic silty clays (80-90%) form two structural groups: (2) laminated, turbiditic

sediments which accumulate on the slope, particularly in the canyons of the northern slope.

Irregular, wavy, thickly laminated, coarse-grained sediments of the up-per slope and canyon heads

merge down-slope with parallel, thinly laminated, fine-grained sediments. Toward the foot of the

slope and on the adjacent deep-sea floor lamination becomes indistinct and sediment is visually

homogeneous. (3) Slump-generated mud lumps of various sizes, which accumulate on the lower

slope, and along the transport axes of the canyons. These are the most visible evidence for large-scale slumping mass movement. Transportational and depositional processes are far more intensive over the steep northern

continental slope of Israel, and especially in its canyons than over the gentle southern slope. Very stiff over-consolidated sediments unconformably overlain by the ubiquitous recent silty-clayey sediment were cored on steep sections of the middle continental slope and along the

canyon walls. Their pre-consolidation stress values suggest that these sections were formerly

overlain by more than 40m of sediment and now are exposed by slumping. The down-sliding slabs

usually disintegrated into small fragments although several huge fragments could be indentified

along the canyon axes.